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===Great Britain and Ireland===
{{Main|England in the High Middle Ages|Scotland in the High Middle Ages|History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages|Lordship of Ireland}}
In England, the [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066 resulted in a kingdom ruled by a [[French language|Francophone]] nobility. The [[Normans]] invaded Ireland in 1169 and soon established themselves in most of the country, although their stronghold was the southeast. Likewise, [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]] were subdued into [[Vassal state|vassal states]] at about the same time, though Scotland later asserted its independence and Wales remained largely under the rule of independent native princes until the death of [[Llywelyn ap Gruffudd|Llywelyn ap Gruffydd]] in 1282.<ref>Davies, Rees (2025-08-07). "Wales: A Culture Preserved". bbc.co.uk/history. p. 3. Retrieved 2025-08-07.</ref> The [[Exchequer]] was founded in the 12th century under [[Henry I of England|King Henry I]], and the first [[Parliament of England|parliaments]] were convened. In 1215, after the loss of [[Normandy]], [[John of England|King John]] signed the [[Magna Carta]] into law, limiting the power of [[List of monarchs of England|English monarchs]].